Courtesy National Archives, Photo American Indian Select List number #194.
Three Marine Corps women reservists, Camp Lejeune, N.C. Left to right: Minnie Spotted Wolf (Blackfoot), Celia Mix (Potawatomi), and Viola Eastman (Chippewa). U.S. Marine Corps photograph, October 16, 1943. American Indian Select List number 194.
During President Franklin D. Roosevelet's first term, the Indian Reorganization Act (IRA) of 1934 was passed. This Act, taking its cue from the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), sought to reverse the neglect and exploitation that had characterized government policies regarding Native Americans. The BIA had proposed three key things: 1) the re-establishing of tribal self-rule, 2) support for Native American cultural preservation, and 3) an end to the allotment system created by the Dawes Act, which resulted in the loss by Native Americans of a significant amount of Indian land.
Though Native American responses to this new Act were split (some were prepared to assimilate while others refused to trust any more federal interventions), most approved of the act. Unfortunately, the IRA, while re-establishing self-governing rights and reducing the pressures to asssimilate, did little to improve the quality of life for Native Americans.
During World War II, however, Native American men and women enlisted and fought alongside other Americans, making valuable contributions. (Note: In fact, one of the four Marines in the famous lwo Jima flag-raising photograph was Pfc. Ira H. Hayes, a Pima Native American, at age 19.)
In 1950, however, yet another reversal of federal policy would affect Native American rights. "Termination" re-established the expectation of assimilation and with it, the government communicated a reluctance to treat Native Americans any differently than it did other citizens. Proposals included the following: a dismantling of the reservation system, a severing of the federal government's prior relationship with Native Americans, a refusal to honor treaty obligations, and the elimination of sovereign status of tribes. Fortunately, "termination" failed.
Reversing its position yet again, the federal government implemented 1970s policies which, again enabled greater autonomy for tribal governments, and in 1974, the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act was passed. This Act permitted tribes to assume control of numerous federal programs already in place on their reservations. At the same time, a Red Power movement took shape, emulating African-American and Latino civil rights struggles.
The 1980s ushered in the Reagan Administration, which made massive cuts in federal assistance to Native Americans. In 1983 alone, aid was cut by more than one-third.
Though Native American responses to this new Act were split (some were prepared to assimilate while others refused to trust any more federal interventions), most approved of the act. Unfortunately, the IRA, while re-establishing self-governing rights and reducing the pressures to asssimilate, did little to improve the quality of life for Native Americans.
During World War II, however, Native American men and women enlisted and fought alongside other Americans, making valuable contributions. (Note: In fact, one of the four Marines in the famous lwo Jima flag-raising photograph was Pfc. Ira H. Hayes, a Pima Native American, at age 19.)
In 1950, however, yet another reversal of federal policy would affect Native American rights. "Termination" re-established the expectation of assimilation and with it, the government communicated a reluctance to treat Native Americans any differently than it did other citizens. Proposals included the following: a dismantling of the reservation system, a severing of the federal government's prior relationship with Native Americans, a refusal to honor treaty obligations, and the elimination of sovereign status of tribes. Fortunately, "termination" failed.
Reversing its position yet again, the federal government implemented 1970s policies which, again enabled greater autonomy for tribal governments, and in 1974, the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act was passed. This Act permitted tribes to assume control of numerous federal programs already in place on their reservations. At the same time, a Red Power movement took shape, emulating African-American and Latino civil rights struggles.
The 1980s ushered in the Reagan Administration, which made massive cuts in federal assistance to Native Americans. In 1983 alone, aid was cut by more than one-third.